john curtin :: essays research papers

Regarded by many as one of Australia’s greatest Prime Ministers, John Curtin assumed office just six weeks before the bombing of Pearl Harbor and led Australia through the darkest hours of World War II. No prime minister has had a more profound effect on Australia and no man has given more in the service of his office. Curtin was born in the Victorian mining town of Creswick on January 8, 1885. His parents were Irish immigrants. His father worked first as a policeman, then as a publican, and the family moved frequently from town to town. His much interrupted education ended when he left school at 14 and began to supplement the family income–as a printer's apprentice, a labourer, a clerk, and a newspaper copyboy which as you can see lead him to champion rights of lower society. Curtin’s interest in social issues and the plight of the working class led him to become actively involved in the labour movement and he joined the Victorian Socialist Party in 1906. He soon became known as an eloquent and inspiring speaker and this ability enabled him to unite the people of Australia in a way unprecedented then and unsurpassed since. John Curtin was just beginning his working life as Australia became a Federated nation. Despite moving away from his Irish Catholic background, he was evidently influenced by it and by the poverty of his upbringing to realise that Australia was not an equal society, and that the major task of a national government was to govern for the good of all the people. In 1917 he moved to Perth as editor of the â€Å"Westralian Worker†. While living in Western Australia, he developed a realisation that Federation disadvantaged some states. He believed that some of these weaknesses occurred because the Constitution had not been followed closely enough. He never lost his faith in the spirit and intention of Federation .He first entered politics in 1928 as the Member for Fremantle in the House of Representatives, but his term was cut short when Labor was defeated in 1931 and he lost his seat. However, one year after re-entering parliament in 1934, he was elected parliamentary leader and when the Fadden government collapsed, Curtin became Prime Minister in October, 1941 He had a remarkable grasp of economics, and in four years his government overhauled the national economy, creating full employment in the process. He and his cabinet made a number of other revolutionary changes in the fabric of Australian life, particularly in the liberalisation of social welfare and immigration policies .

The main problem of the high amount

Alcoholism has always taken its toll on people, when they can stop controlling their habit, which would ultimately lead them to destruction in the form of alcohol abuse.   The people of Alaska are going through the same phase, and their rate of acceleration of the abuse is getting pretty much alarming.The main problem of the high amount of alcohol abuse in the state, can not only just be blamed at the people, but also should be blamed at the authority over them. Somehow the government’s function machinery seems too weak to handle the problem, and no proper steps have been taken till date that would help curb the problem.The relaxed laws, are the icing on the cake when it comes to the abuse in alcohol, as people have taken it for granted and know about the maximum punishment the state has to offer, when it comes to over drinking or to Alaska’s biggest problem, ‘underage drinking’; which is why the pathetic condition of the state in regards to alcoholism ca n be seen.Curbing the problem is not very easy, and steps have to be taken which have to be imaginative and out of the way category to put an end to the state’s meaningless alcoholism. More care can be given in counseling in schools, so that children from the age of 12 understand the bad effects of alcoholic abuse, and can learn to compete and to tackle the pressure of alcoholic parents and the pressures of the peer group to remain sober.Laws should be more vindictive when it’s coming to alcoholism in the state, and harsher punishments should be given than just monetary fines. People committing crime under the influence of alcohol, should be punished more strictly than compared to other states, as there is a serious rise in alcohol related crimes and felonies. More forces should be used to curtail smugglers providing illegal liquor in dry areas, as they have almost ruined the small rural areas of the state.A proposed solution to the problem would be that every person i n the state, should be given liquor permits, on the basis of compulsory psychological and physical tests, where his limit to alcohol would be based on the severity of his alcoholic problem, giving the government insights of severity of citizens along with getting sound demographic knowledge of alcohol abused areas.Since the beginning of civilization, man has always had tried to acquire a habit, that would keep him occupied and would make him content, at the cost of others. Strange as it may seem, man had developed the production of alcohol not too far after he understood the concept of still agriculture, and end of nomadic life also bought in an era of a time, where the concept of being in an inebriated state was realized.Alcohol has been introduced and has been cherished by all the civilizations that have come and that have been responsible for the development of mankind. Alcohol in those times, were used as medicine, God offerings, for nutrition purposes and was used for different sets of rituals and traditions that the natives followed apart from gratification.In today’s times, alcohol has become an integral part of our culture, and apart from beer and wine, which were the olden times favorite beverages, we have now options for the choicest of choicest drinks and cocktails available to us with great ease.Any pleasure activity that is done in control is well appreciated, but the problem occurs with an uncontrollable desire to continue doing pleasure activities, without understanding the consequences, and falling into the trap of addiction. This addiction trap, initial gains access to individuals, then groups, then large sections of the society, and finally it consumes an entire state, like the current condition of Alaska.  Alaska, is probably the best example of effects of alcohol abuse on a very large scale, and the whole state’s function is collapsing and the state output is being wastedon it residents, as the inhabitants of the state have reached a stage known as â€Å"disease of dependency†, because of high alcohol consumption.The problem with the state is it’s firstly very sparsely populated, and it suffers from a high percentage from the phenomenon of brain drain right after high school. Moreover in the winter the climate goes down berserk, and temperature can go down below -50 degree Celsius.This extreme cold also prompts the natives to drink more than the quota of an average American, and the natives love for alcohol has given the state an average of alcohol consumption more than double when compared to the national average for alcohol consumption.The report of the Alaska native federation stated the alcohol abuse has badly gripped the state of Alaska, and the entire state was heading for doom, as the effects of the alcohol were quiet drastic.

Essay on Sustainability at EastLink Engineering Project

Sustainability, which is the definition of â€Å"the process of using, conserving and enhancing a community’s resources†, plays a significant part in large engineering projects such as EastLink. EastLink’s long-term goal is to provide a fast, lasting alternative for drivers to commute between eastern suburbs. For a project that had a final total cost of $2.5B, sustainability, that is ensuring that its relevance and usefulness to the society today and for the foreseeable future is a pivotal part of EastLink. Permanent projects that demand large commitment and resources are the ones that need to heed the concept of sustainability the most, as often there is no going back once construction of such a project has begun. Just like it is with†¦show more content†¦Two significant decisions that have affected the EastLink project are firstly, the decision to develop EastLink as a tollway and secondly, an environmental issue involving potential damage that would b e caused to the nearby Mullum Mullum Valley. EastLink was a multibillion-dollar project, and its funding stemmed primarily from the Federal government, however as the project progressed, the Victorian Government switched to the stance that the EastLink project was no longer viable as a toll free road which subsequently led to the termination of the partial Federal government funding for EastLink. The Federal government’s reasoning being that it would only provide support and funding for projects that were toll free, hence the Victorian Government’s initial promise. The Victorian Government’s decision to have EastLink be a tolled motorway is one influenced by the operating and development costs of such a large civil project and is largely motivated by the financial return of such a project. These concerns were later shown as EastLink made a loss of nearly $93M in its first six months of operation, the largest reason being that being a tolled motorway, it would not attract as many motorists than it would†™ve being a toll free road. The second decision arose over the planning of the layout of EastLink, namely over the extent of environmental damage that would be caused

Community Violence And How It Affects School Aged Children

While reviewing the various Human Rights that have been designated by the United Nations for safeguarding the children in the world, there appeared to be a strong correlation with some articles and the research topic that my group has proposed. My group has suggested for a topic examining community violence and how it affects school aged children. This topic will attempt to show a correlation how violence that takes place in urban environments can have an adverse effect on children and their learning patterns causing a decline in education. The three articles that address this topic of rights of children are; article 19, article 29, and article 39. Article 19 states that â€Å"parties shall take all appropriate legislative, administrative, social and educational measures to protect the child from all forms of physical or mental violence, injury, or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploitation, including sexual abuse, while in the care of parent(s), legal guardian(s) or any other person who has the care of the child (Reichert, 2006).† Children who live in low socioeconomic neighborhoods frequently are at a greater risk for violence or become witnesses to violence causing emotional and physical trauma. The second article is article 29 which states; â€Å"state parties agree that the education of the child shall be directed to: The development of the child’s personality, talents and mental and physical abilities to their fullest potential (Reichert, 2006).†Show MoreRelatedScope Of Community Violence Among Children1502 Words   |  7 PagesScope of Community Violence among children in the United States Community violence refers to a wide variety of events such as: terrorism, riots, gang wars, mass shootings, bombings, drive-by shootings, murders, kidnappings, drug dealing, robberies, domestic violence, abuse, harassments, and others (Finkelhor, Turner, Ormrod, Hamby, Kracke, 2009; Hamlen Goguen, 2016). Every country in the world experiences some violence. However, the United States has been described as the â€Å"most violent countryRead MoreBecoming A Social Worker, Values, Beliefs, And Theory Of Practice782 Words   |  4 Pagessocial worker. As social worker practitioner the fields that interest me to work in is domestic violence and child abuse because I want to make change to the society. Also Mahatma Gandhi was my major inspiration through this quote â€Å"Be the change that you wish to see in the world†. Than an idea came to me, why not involve my contribution to the wide variety of communities. My communication with school counsellors and social workers has imp acted my choice of desiring to study social work. I realisedRead MoreEffects Of Youth Violence781 Words   |  4 Pagesissues which affect the population, youth violence is one of many issues. Youth violence is a behavior in which serious consequences and is now one of the primary public health issues of our period. Youth violence has affected not just the offenders but also their families and the community. Absence of positive role models, violence in families, victims due to violence, poverty and living in a community where crime is committed all contribute to youth violence. Youth Violence Youth violence refersRead MoreDomestic Violence And Its Effects On Children1445 Words   |  6 PagesWhat is domestic Violence? Domestic Violence is described as violent or aggressive behavior within the home, typically involving the violent abuse of a spouse or partner. Many children end up being the victims to seeing domestic violence in the home which is very unhealthy to their development. Some children may development resentment toward both parents- one for not leaving and the other for causing the abuse. Depression, aggressive behavior, emotional distress and suicide depending on the severityRead MoreSocioeconomic Factors Contributing to Crime and Violence in Jamaica1729 Words   |  7 Pagesproblem with crime and violence. For years there have been numerous attempts, through policy and legislation, to reduce the level of crime in Jamaica. Based on international statistics, this is a country that has suffered from a high crime rate for years, being near the top of internatio nal homicide rate lists since the 1970’s (Gilbert amp; Sookram, 2009). In this paper an attempt will be made to provide some level of insight into the possible contributing factors to violence in Jamaica. The factorsRead MoreSocial Media And Its Impact On Society Essay1691 Words   |  7 Pagesacross the world at lightning speed. With all the great things social media offers, it also presents undesirable characteristics that seem to negatively influence people, and more specifically young children, to the point where many have ultimately rejected the idea of joining the online social community. Social media has also provided people, who intend to use the service only to do harm, the ability to reach victims across the world. Additionally, social media has exposed the young generation toRead MoreHow Domestic Violence Affects Children As Well As The Mental Health Of Its Victims1744 Words   |  7 PagesWhitney M. Young Jr School of Social Work LaShoney Frink Review of Literature The purpose of this literature is to deliver an extensive overview of the research topic. This chapter will provide a historical background on domestic violence, a historical perspective of the services provided and an overview of different forms of domestic violence. The goal of this literature review is to examine the statistical information that is presented as it relates to domestic violence. This literature reviewRead Moreforce have contributed to a dramatic shift in family eating habits. The traditional family dinner900 Words   |  4 Pagesresulted in a growing number of latch-key children. Often these children are responsible for providing snacks and dinner for themselves and their younger siblings. Compounding the problems associated with latch key children, parents’ perceptions of safe neighborhoods also contribute to increases in childhood obesity. Our local community lacks organized opportunities for safe, recreational activities; therefore, in the absence of adu lt caregivers, many latch-key children are instructed to remain inside theRead MoreVideo Game : Video Games1584 Words   |  7 Pagesplayed by boys and girls, young and old alike in today’s society. Many experts fear that this violence in video games increases violence in people in real life, causing people to act out as if they were in the video game, increasing aggressive behavior so much that it could actually escalate to shooting, stabbing, and killing people. There have already been many cases of these extreme examples of violence in the news that share a connection with video games. Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, the infamousRead MoreThe Cost Of Domestic Violence1662 Words   |  7 PagesCenteria Cooley Sociology 101 Professor Nelms 20 November 2015 The Cost of Domestic Violence in America â€Å"Just because the scare have healed, doesn’t mean the pain has.† –healthyplace.com Domestic violence is a pattern of behavior used to exhibit control over another person through fear and intimidation by threat, force, or use of violence in intimate relationships. This issue has been an overlooked problem in American society for ages however as it becomes mainstream time and time again and the

Evolution of Guy Montag - 1238 Words

Evolution of Guy Montag The novel Fahrenheit 451 is an acclaimed depiction of a dystopian world that employs firemen to destroy literature and the printed word. The protagonist, Guy Montag, faces internal as well as external conflicts during the novel. His character is constantly evolving throughout the course of the text. Fahrenheit 451 is essentially a bildungsroman due to the fact that the protagonist is so dynamic in character and continually changing. A bildungsroman is a novel in which the moral and psychological growth of the protagonist is depicted from the genesis to the denouement of the given work. At the onset of the novel Montag is a rule following conformist. He obeys the rules and regulations provided by his†¦show more content†¦The first hints of his rebellion surface when he hides books in his home. His wife completely disagrees with this and fears that he will get them killed. Though he is put in danger by his actions he is steadfast in his search for the truth. Once he begins to question the authorities he becomes even more determined to alter his ways so that he can be a source of positive change for others who are willing to join him. As Montag is becoming more and more rebellious, he finds a confidant in Faber. Faber was once a college professor but lost his job when things started to change and books were burned. Though he is somewhat of a coward who does not want to rebel due to the fact that he does no t want to face the consequences, he is a big help to Montag as he evolves. Montag is forced to burn his own house down and it seems as if all is coming to an end. At Hutchinson this point, he has lost his friend, his job, his relationship with his spouse, and his house. Despite all of these things, he continues on. He reaches the climax of his change from a brain washed conformist to a justice seeking citizen when he seeks revenge on his fellow firefighters, mainly his captain Beatty. Montag kills Captain Beatty and the city goes up in flames, though not by his hand. He seeks refuge with some squatters in the woods on the outskirts of the city who discovered their rebellious side just as Montag had. The novel ends with MontagShow MoreRelatedCharacterization Of A Hero In Ray Bradburys Fahrenheit 4511272 Words   |  6 Pages451† stating that â€Å"Montag begins the novel ostensibly proud of his profession and settled in life, but we soon find that there is disquiet beneath the surface† (897). Throughout the continuation of the story, Guy Montag is the main character who ultimately refuses to be controlled by the dictated environment in which he lives. At one point in the novel, Montag lets his job blind him from what he knows as right and wrong. However, with the help of his neighbor and mentor, Montag begins to think forRead MoreGuy Montag as a Hero1118 Words   |  5 PagesFrom Guy to Hero When we hear the word ‘hero’ we think about those who fight for our country out at war or those who put their lives in jeopardy everyday protecting their community like a police officer or fireman, all of these citizens doing this for a small wage in comparison to Rap artists who rhyme profane words making millions of dollars. However you don’t have to live on the streets or have more money than sense to be a hero, you just have to make a difference. In the end identifying someoneRead MoreThe Narrative Creation Of Self In Fahrenheit 4511308 Words   |  6 PagesIn Fahrenheit 451 Guy Montag is seen as the main character and the reason for this whole story because without him there would not be a story at all. However, while Montag is the central character his path is laid out for him by the other characters in the novel. These characters play the most important role in creating the feel of the story. Bradbury comments on humanitys urge to suppress what they do not understand. Clarisse McClellan appearance, actions, ideas, and relationships give importantRead MoreFahrenheit 451 Essay1647 Words   |  7 Pagesof change in a society through the eyes of Guy Montag. In the fictitious story, Guy serves as one of many firemen in the community; rather than removing the fires, they set them upon books, which had prohibited and illegalized. After a series of events that transpired in the novel, Montag would begin to recognize the intellectual censorship caused by the absence of books; beginning his crusade to reintroduce them into culture. Just like the society, Montag evolved and changed over time; leading himRead More What are some of the key ideas and messages presented in the novel,1952 Words   |  8 Pagesperspective of Bradbury’s protagonist, Guy Montag. Fahrenheit 451 was initially published in 1953; however it is set in the twenty fourth century in a conformist society, where literature is illegal. Throughout Fahrenheit 451, Bradbury conveys some very important messages and ideas. Among these are; censorship, the influence of technology, individual choice and the role of the individual in society, ruling by fear and totalitarianism, and the evolution of society. Ray Bradbury’s FahrenheitRead MoreSimilarities Between Graceling And Fahrenheit 4511584 Words   |  7 Pagesrecent publication only four years ago. The ideas established in the book are continuously relevant, revolving around the idea of governmental censorship and the oppression of opinion. During the course of the book, we can see the main protagonist, Guy Montag, realize the importance of free thought and feeling, leading him to escape the city that held thought-provoking ideas hostage in hopes of finding salvation with a group of outcasts outside the walls of control. Beyond the surface of the book, weRead MoreAnalysis Of Ray Bradbury s Fahrenheit 4511241 Words   |  5 Pagesenlightenment. The reader’s launched into a dystopian future where books are forbidden, and individualism considered as being idiotic ideology. As the novel begins, the reader’s thrown into the twenty-first century following the post-apocalyptic life of Guy Montag. Montag’s pre sented as an all American citizen; at thirty-years-old, he is a hardworking married fireman who takes pride in his work. However, not by any means is the definition of firemen the same as it is in today’s culture. The actual natureRead More The Metamorphosis of Guy Montag Essay2120 Words   |  9 Pagesbooks that can be considered a classic. The adulation of this novel is due to its plethora of symbols, metaphors, and character development. Bradbury’s character development is singularly impressive in this book because he shows the evolution of the main character, Guy Montag, â€Å"from book-burner to living-book† (Johnson 111). His maturity is displayed by his growing understanding of the world in which he lives and by seeing the flaws in his society. Bradbury illustrates Montag’s metamorphosis with himRead MoreThe Metamorphosis of Guy Montag Essay2184 Words   |  9 Pagesbooks that can be considered a classic. The adulation of this novel is due to its plethora of symbols, metaphors, and character development. Bradburys character development is singularly impressive in this book because he shows the evolution of the main character, Guy Montag, from book-burner to living -book (Johnson 111). His maturity is displayed by his growing understanding of the world in which he lives and by seeing the flaws in his society. Bradbury illustrates Montags metamorphosis with himRead MoreTwo Different Prospects for the Future: Ray Bradburys and Margaret Atwood1657 Words   |  7 Pageson the ability to speak and express freely, and ironically, have themselves faced bouts of criticism and censorship. These are freedoms that Diane Wood reminds us â€Å"must be vigilantly guarded in order to be maintained† (Wood 4). As Americans, the evolution of our society has depended on those very freedoms. Through examination of these two novels, we will see how the stifling of the fundamental freedoms of discourse and individual expression, perpetuated by their governments’ desire to control and

Anthem by Ayn Rand An Overview free essay sample

Anthem Essay Anthem by Ayn Rand is a most interesting novel filled with many different emotions, but one emotion Prometheus failed to encounter until later on in life was free will. He eventually learns the true meaning of freedom and how to cope with his stern intolerable society. Even though he is reprimanded unfairly for what is the best in him, Prometheus still has faith for what he is doing is right. Also change and progression might be an unnerving thing to the world council, but that won’t stop Prometheus from saving what’s left of his worlds past. Living and growing up in such a collectivist society, Prometheus never knew what it meant to truly feel free. Never knowing that his whole society had been deceived and doomed to corruption was a major disadvantage for Prometheus, but through it all he followed his heart and pulled through. He came to realize that he is free in almost all ways possible. We will write a custom essay sample on Anthem by Ayn Rand An Overview or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Free to think, say, and feel what ever and whenever he wants. Ayn Rand writes â€Å"And we heard suddenly that we were laughing, laughing aloud, laughing as if there were no power left in us save laughter. † The theme in this quote is free will.Prometheus experiences free will after escaping to the uncharted forest, away from his unforgiving, unprogressive collectivist society. In this amazingly unique story Anthem a young man named Equality 7-2521, later known as Prometheus, has been neglected of the knowledge of his past and now lives in a never changing collectivist society in which he feels he does not belong. Being born too tall and too smart was no accident of fate, Equality I believe was born for a much bigger purpose. That purpose being to bring change to not just his small city but to the world, to bring something new into the spectrum of life.Equality believed he was cursed with having a mind much quicker than all his brothers and was reprimanded by his teachers for his actions. Rand says â€Å"It is not good to be different from out brothers, but it is evil to be superior to them. † Equality comes to learn that his transgression was really no transgression at all, but rather human nature, his way of freedom, and hos character. The one thing the world council fears the most is change and progression and this is exactly what Prometheus puts into play. All he wasn’t is to bring light to the world with his new invention, but the council fears what might happen if they let this change occur. The council can only see the bad in what he has done even though there is a profuse more amount of good in it. Fearing the suggestions of being lashed and burned until nothing was left; Prometheus runs to the uncharted forest for the council misread his good intentions as greed. Rand writes â€Å"How dare you think that your mind held greater wisdom than the minds of your brothers? † Prometheus only wants to better mankind and save it from its future corruption.Objectivism is the inimitable philosophic meaning of Ayn Rand in this novel. Metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, politics, and aesthetics are the five predominant aspects to objectivism. Each and every one of these aspects was acknowledged in almost every chapter of this book. Rand writes â€Å"Man is a rational being. Reason, as man’s only means of knowledge, is his basic means of survival. † This quote is coming from the aspect of human nature and is explicating that what a man truly knows is his life and what he will come to be.As you can see Anthem is a very compelling story with ethics, reason, romance, and so much more. Prometheus now recognizes how wrong his society had been in depriving himself and his brothers of the knowledge of their past. Also Prometheus comes to conceive why the best in him had been deemed as his sins and his transgression. Though through the hard times in his society Prometheus was different he could never just simply follow the crowd, in the end his dissimilarity could be the one thing his society needs to redeem their own transgressions.

Biosphere Essay Example For Students

Biosphere Essay The biosphere is part of the earth in which life exists. It is 20 km thick fromthe bottom of the ocean to the lower atmosphere. It consists of three layers:the lithosphere, which is the land on the surface of the earth; the hydrosphere,which comprises of the water on the earth as well as water vapor in the air; andthe atmosphere, which is made up of the air that surrounds the earth. The livingorganisms in the biosphere interact and affect each other in many ways. This iscalled a biotic factor. Similarly, there are non-living elements that have aneffect on living organisms, these are considered abiotic factors. Examples ofabiotic factors are air, temperature, water, soil, light, and minerals. In abiosphere, organisms live in special groupings. For instance, a populationconsists of all individuals of a species living in a general area. A communityis a population located in a certain area living among different species. Anecosystem is yet a larger conglomeration of a population, a commu nity, andabiotic factors. Ecosystems can be aquatic or terrestrial. The earths aquaticecosystem makes up about 75% of the earths surface. This aquatic environment isdivided into marine and freshwater environments. The earths terrestrialecosystem is mainly made up of forests and deserts, which make up for 25% of theearths surface. The role or function of an organism in a community is thatorganisms niche. An organisms niche is an area picked by that organism basedon physical factors such as temperature, light, oxygen and carbon dioxidecontent and biological factors such as food, competition for resources andpredators. This niche provides the organism a place to live in. A habitatremains consistent with an organisms niche as well as provides the organismwith a place to reproduce. In this case, organisms may have the same habitat,but different niches. There are three types of relationships involving theinteractions between organisms. They are mutualism, commensalism, andparasitism. Mutu alism is a relationship where both organisms benefit from theirinteraction with each other. An example is the honey bee and a flowering plant. Commensalism only benefits one organism, but the other organism is not affected. Parasitism only benefits one organism and harms the other organism, which mostof the time is the host. In the ecosystem, matter and nutrients are cycled viabiogeochemical cycles such as water, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and phosphorous. The burning of fossil fuels contributes to the industrial cycle of carbondioxide in the atmosphere. This contributes to the greenhouse effect, which hasbeen a reason for global warming. Nitrogen is found in the atmosphere and makesup about 78% of the earths air mixture. Oxygen makes up about 22% of theearths air mixture, and pollutants make up about 1% of the earths air mixture. Nitrogen is important in the development of organisms on earth, as the makecompounds such as proteins and amino acid. These compounds are important becausethey make up DNA and other compounds crucial to the formation and sustenance oflife. Changes in an ecosystem are brought about by different factors. Forexample, ecological succession brings about the replacement of one community byanother in an ecosystem. In other instances, organisms that colonize an areawith no community present are considered pioneer organisms. A climax communityis the final stage of development of organisms and can be disrupted by a majorcatastrophe like a volcanic eruption.